\section{Built-in Types} The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the interpreter. These are the numeric types, sequence types, and several others, including types themselves. There is no explicit Boolean type; use integers instead. \indexii{built-in}{types} \indexii{Boolean}{type} Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular, all objects can be compared, tested for truth value, and converted to a string (with the \code{`{\rm \ldots}`} notation). The latter conversion is implicitly used when an object is written by the \code{print} statement. \stindex{print} \subsection{Truth Value Testing} Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an \code{if} or \code{while} condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below. The following values are considered false: \stindex{if} \stindex{while} \indexii{truth}{value} \indexii{Boolean}{operations} \index{false} \begin{itemize} \renewcommand{\indexsubitem}{(Built-in object)} \item \code{None} \ttindex{None} \item zero of any numeric type, e.g., \code{0}, \code{0L}, \code{0.0}. \item any empty sequence, e.g., \code{''}, \code{()}, \code{[]}. \item any empty mapping, e.g., \code{\{\}}. \item instances of user-defined classes, if the class defines a \code{__nonzero__()} or \code{__len__()} method, when that method returns zero. \end{itemize} All other values are considered true --- so objects of many types are always true. \index{true} Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return \code{0} for false and \code{1} for true, unless otherwise stated. (Important exception: the Boolean operations \samp{or} and \samp{and} always return one of their operands.) \subsection{Boolean Operations} These are the Boolean operations, ordered by ascending priority: \indexii{Boolean}{operations} \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Result}{Notes} \lineiii{\var{x} or \var{y}}{if \var{x} is false, then \var{y}, else \var{x}}{(1)} \hline \lineiii{\var{x} and \var{y}}{if \var{x} is false, then \var{x}, else \var{y}}{(1)} \hline \lineiii{not \var{x}}{if \var{x} is false, then \code{1}, else \code{0}}{(2)} \end{tableiii} \opindex{and} \opindex{or} \opindex{not} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] These only evaluate their second argument if needed for their outcome. \item[(2)] \samp{not} has a lower priority than non-Boolean operators, so e.g. \code{not a == b} is interpreted as \code{not(a == b)}, and \code{a == not b} is a syntax error. \end{description} \subsection{Comparisons} Comparison operations are supported by all objects. They all have the same priority (which is higher than that of the Boolean operations). Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g. \code{x < y <= z} is equivalent to \code{x < y and y <= z}, except that \code{y} is evaluated only once (but in both cases \code{z} is not evaluated at all when \code{x < y} is found to be false). \indexii{chaining}{comparisons} This table summarizes the comparison operations: \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Meaning}{Notes} \lineiii{<}{strictly less than}{} \lineiii{<=}{less than or equal}{} \lineiii{>}{strictly greater than}{} \lineiii{>=}{greater than or equal}{} \lineiii{==}{equal}{} \lineiii{<>}{not equal}{(1)} \lineiii{!=}{not equal}{(1)} \lineiii{is}{object identity}{} \lineiii{is not}{negated object identity}{} \end{tableiii} \indexii{operator}{comparison} \opindex{==} % XXX *All* others have funny characters < ! > \opindex{is} \opindex{is not} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] \code{<>} and \code{!=} are alternate spellings for the same operator. (I couldn't choose between \ABC{} and \C{}! :-) \indexii{\ABC{}}{language} \indexii{\C{}}{language} \end{description} Objects of different types, except different numeric types, never compare equal; such objects are ordered consistently but arbitrarily (so that sorting a heterogeneous array yields a consistent result). Furthermore, some types (e.g., windows) support only a degenerate notion of comparison where any two objects of that type are unequal. Again, such objects are ordered arbitrarily but consistently. \indexii{types}{numeric} \indexii{objects}{comparing} (Implementation note: objects of different types except numbers are ordered by their type names; objects of the same types that don't support proper comparison are ordered by their address.) Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, \code{in} and \code{not in}, are supported only by sequence types (below). \opindex{in} \opindex{not in} \subsection{Numeric Types} There are three numeric types: \dfn{plain integers}, \dfn{long integers}, and \dfn{floating point numbers}. Plain integers (also just called \dfn{integers}) are implemented using \code{long} in \C{}, which gives them at least 32 bits of precision. Long integers have unlimited precision. Floating point numbers are implemented using \code{double} in \C{}. All bets on their precision are off unless you happen to know the machine you are working with. \indexii{numeric}{types} \indexii{integer}{types} \indexii{integer}{type} \indexiii{long}{integer}{type} \indexii{floating point}{type} \indexii{\C{}}{language} Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions and operators. Unadorned integer literals (including hex and octal numbers) yield plain integers. Integer literals with an \samp{L} or \samp{l} suffix yield long integers (\samp{L} is preferred because \code{1l} looks too much like eleven!). Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an exponent sign yield floating point numbers. \indexii{numeric}{literals} \indexii{integer}{literals} \indexiii{long}{integer}{literals} \indexii{floating point}{literals} \indexii{hexadecimal}{literals} \indexii{octal}{literals} Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has operands of different numeric types, the operand with the ``smaller'' type is converted to that of the other, where plain integer is smaller than long integer is smaller than floating point. Comparisons between numbers of mixed type use the same rule.% \footnote{As a consequence, the list \code{[1, 2]} is considered equal to \code{[1.0, 2.0]}, and similar for tuples.} The functions \code{int()}, \code{long()} and \code{float()} can be used to coerce numbers to a specific type. \index{arithmetic} \bifuncindex{int} \bifuncindex{long} \bifuncindex{float} All numeric types support the following operations, sorted by ascending priority (operations in the same box have the same priority; all numeric operations have a higher priority than comparison operations): \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Result}{Notes} \lineiii{\var{x} + \var{y}}{sum of \var{x} and \var{y}}{} \lineiii{\var{x} - \var{y}}{difference of \var{x} and \var{y}}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{x} * \var{y}}{product of \var{x} and \var{y}}{} \lineiii{\var{x} / \var{y}}{quotient of \var{x} and \var{y}}{(1)} \lineiii{\var{x} \%{} \var{y}}{remainder of \code{\var{x} / \var{y}}}{} \hline \lineiii{-\var{x}}{\var{x} negated}{} \lineiii{+\var{x}}{\var{x} unchanged}{} \hline \lineiii{abs(\var{x})}{absolute value of \var{x}}{} \lineiii{int(\var{x})}{\var{x} converted to integer}{(2)} \lineiii{long(\var{x})}{\var{x} converted to long integer}{(2)} \lineiii{float(\var{x})}{\var{x} converted to floating point}{} \lineiii{divmod(\var{x}, \var{y})}{the pair \code{(\var{x} / \var{y}, \var{x} \%{} \var{y})}}{(3)} \lineiii{pow(\var{x}, \var{y})}{\var{x} to the power \var{y}}{} \end{tableiii} \indexiii{operations on}{numeric}{types} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] For (plain or long) integer division, the result is an integer. The result is always rounded towards minus infinity: 1/2 is 0, (-1)/2 is -1, 1/(-2) is -1, and (-1)/(-2) is 0. \indexii{integer}{division} \indexiii{long}{integer}{division} \item[(2)] Conversion from floating point to (long or plain) integer may round or truncate as in \C{}; see functions \code{floor()} and \code{ceil()} in module \code{math} for well-defined conversions. \bifuncindex{floor} \bifuncindex{ceil} \indexii{numeric}{conversions} \stmodindex{math} \indexii{\C{}}{language} \item[(3)] See the section on built-in functions for an exact definition. \end{description} % XXXJH exceptions: overflow (when? what operations?) zerodivision \subsubsection{Bit-string Operations on Integer Types} \nodename{Bit-string Operations} Plain and long integer types support additional operations that make sense only for bit-strings. Negative numbers are treated as their 2's complement value (for long integers, this assumes a sufficiently large number of bits that no overflow occurs during the operation). The priorities of the binary bit-wise operations are all lower than the numeric operations and higher than the comparisons; the unary operation \samp{~} has the same priority as the other unary numeric operations (\samp{+} and \samp{-}). This table lists the bit-string operations sorted in ascending priority (operations in the same box have the same priority): \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Result}{Notes} \lineiii{\var{x} | \var{y}}{bitwise \dfn{or} of \var{x} and \var{y}}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{x} \^{} \var{y}}{bitwise \dfn{exclusive or} of \var{x} and \var{y}}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{x} \&{} \var{y}}{bitwise \dfn{and} of \var{x} and \var{y}}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{x} << \var{n}}{\var{x} shifted left by \var{n} bits}{(1), (2)} \lineiii{\var{x} >> \var{n}}{\var{x} shifted right by \var{n} bits}{(1), (3)} \hline \hline \lineiii{\~\var{x}}{the bits of \var{x} inverted}{} \end{tableiii} \indexiii{operations on}{integer}{types} \indexii{bit-string}{operations} \indexii{shifting}{operations} \indexii{masking}{operations} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] Negative shift counts are illegal. \item[(2)] A left shift by \var{n} bits is equivalent to multiplication by \code{pow(2, \var{n})} without overflow check. \item[(3)] A right shift by \var{n} bits is equivalent to division by \code{pow(2, \var{n})} without overflow check. \end{description} \subsection{Sequence Types} There are three sequence types: strings, lists and tuples. Strings literals are written in single or double quotes: \code{'xyzzy'}, \code{"frobozz"}. See Chapter 2 of the Python Reference Manual for more about string literals. Lists are constructed with square brackets, separating items with commas: \code{[a, b, c]}. Tuples are constructed by the comma operator (not within square brackets), with or without enclosing parentheses, but an empty tuple must have the enclosing parentheses, e.g., \code{a, b, c} or \code{()}. A single item tuple must have a trailing comma, e.g., \code{(d,)}. \indexii{sequence}{types} \indexii{string}{type} \indexii{tuple}{type} \indexii{list}{type} Sequence types support the following operations. The \samp{in} and \samp{not\,in} operations have the same priorities as the comparison operations. The \samp{+} and \samp{*} operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations.\footnote{They must have since the parser can't tell the type of the operands.} This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority (operations in the same box have the same priority). In the table, \var{s} and \var{t} are sequences of the same type; \var{n}, \var{i} and \var{j} are integers: \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Result}{Notes} \lineiii{\var{x} in \var{s}}{\code{1} if an item of \var{s} is equal to \var{x}, else \code{0}}{} \lineiii{\var{x} not in \var{s}}{\code{0} if an item of \var{s} is equal to \var{x}, else \code{1}}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{s} + \var{t}}{the concatenation of \var{s} and \var{t}}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{s} * \var{n}{\rm ,} \var{n} * \var{s}}{\var{n} copies of \var{s} concatenated}{} \hline \lineiii{\var{s}[\var{i}]}{\var{i}'th item of \var{s}, origin 0}{(1)} \lineiii{\var{s}[\var{i}:\var{j}]}{slice of \var{s} from \var{i} to \var{j}}{(1), (2)} \hline \lineiii{len(\var{s})}{length of \var{s}}{} \lineiii{min(\var{s})}{smallest item of \var{s}}{} \lineiii{max(\var{s})}{largest item of \var{s}}{} \end{tableiii} \indexiii{operations on}{sequence}{types} \bifuncindex{len} \bifuncindex{min} \bifuncindex{max} \indexii{concatenation}{operation} \indexii{repetition}{operation} \indexii{subscript}{operation} \indexii{slice}{operation} \opindex{in} \opindex{not in} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] If \var{i} or \var{j} is negative, the index is relative to the end of the string, i.e., \code{len(\var{s}) + \var{i}} or \code{len(\var{s}) + \var{j}} is substituted. But note that \code{-0} is still \code{0}. \item[(2)] The slice of \var{s} from \var{i} to \var{j} is defined as the sequence of items with index \var{k} such that \code{\var{i} <= \var{k} < \var{j}}. If \var{i} or \var{j} is greater than \code{len(\var{s})}, use \code{len(\var{s})}. If \var{i} is omitted, use \code{0}. If \var{j} is omitted, use \code{len(\var{s})}. If \var{i} is greater than or equal to \var{j}, the slice is empty. \end{description} \subsubsection{More String Operations} String objects have one unique built-in operation: the \code{\%} operator (modulo) with a string left argument interprets this string as a C sprintf format string to be applied to the right argument, and returns the string resulting from this formatting operation. The right argument should be a tuple with one item for each argument required by the format string; if the string requires a single argument, the right argument may also be a single non-tuple object.% \footnote{A tuple object in this case should be a singleton.} The following format characters are understood: \%, c, s, i, d, u, o, x, X, e, E, f, g, G. Width and precision may be a * to specify that an integer argument specifies the actual width or precision. The flag characters -, +, blank, \# and 0 are understood. The size specifiers h, l or L may be present but are ignored. The \code{\%s} conversion takes any Python object and converts it to a string using \code{str()} before formatting it. The ANSI features \code{\%p} and \code{\%n} are not supported. Since Python strings have an explicit length, \code{\%s} conversions don't assume that \code{'\e0'} is the end of the string. For safety reasons, floating point precisions are clipped to 50; \code{\%f} conversions for numbers whose absolute value is over 1e25 are replaced by \code{\%g} conversions.% \footnote{These numbers are fairly arbitrary. They are intended to avoid printing endless strings of meaningless digits without hampering correct use and without having to know the exact precision of floating point values on a particular machine.} All other errors raise exceptions. If the right argument is a dictionary (or any kind of mapping), then the formats in the string must have a parenthesized key into that dictionary inserted immediately after the \code{\%} character, and each format formats the corresponding entry from the mapping. E.g. \begin{verbatim} >>> count = 2 >>> language = 'Python' >>> print '%(language)s has %(count)03d quote types.' % vars() Python has 002 quote types. >>> \end{verbatim} In this case no * specifiers may occur in a format (since they a require sequential parameter list). Additional string operations are defined in standard module \code{string} and in built-in module \code{regex}. \index{string} \index{regex} \subsubsection{Mutable Sequence Types} List objects support additional operations that allow in-place modification of the object. These operations would be supported by other mutable sequence types (when added to the language) as well. Strings and tuples are immutable sequence types and such objects cannot be modified once created. The following operations are defined on mutable sequence types (where \var{x} is an arbitrary object): \indexiii{mutable}{sequence}{types} \indexii{list}{type} \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Result}{Notes} \lineiii{\var{s}[\var{i}] = \var{x}} {item \var{i} of \var{s} is replaced by \var{x}}{} \lineiii{\var{s}[\var{i}:\var{j}] = \var{t}} {slice of \var{s} from \var{i} to \var{j} is replaced by \var{t}}{} \lineiii{del \var{s}[\var{i}:\var{j}]} {same as \code{\var{s}[\var{i}:\var{j}] = []}}{} \lineiii{\var{s}.append(\var{x})} {same as \code{\var{s}[len(\var{s}):len(\var{s})] = [\var{x}]}}{} \lineiii{\var{s}.count(\var{x})} {return number of \var{i}'s for which \code{\var{s}[\var{i}] == \var{x}}}{} \lineiii{\var{s}.index(\var{x})} {return smallest \var{i} such that \code{\var{s}[\var{i}] == \var{x}}}{(1)} \lineiii{\var{s}.insert(\var{i}, \var{x})} {same as \code{\var{s}[\var{i}:\var{i}] = [\var{x}]} if \code{\var{i} >= 0}}{} \lineiii{\var{s}.remove(\var{x})} {same as \code{del \var{s}[\var{s}.index(\var{x})]}}{(1)} \lineiii{\var{s}.reverse()} {reverses the items of \var{s} in place}{} \lineiii{\var{s}.sort()} {permutes the items of \var{s} to satisfy \code{\var{s}[\var{i}] <= \var{s}[\var{j}]}, for \code{\var{i} < \var{j}}}{(2)} \end{tableiii} \indexiv{operations on}{mutable}{sequence}{types} \indexiii{operations on}{sequence}{types} \indexiii{operations on}{list}{type} \indexii{subscript}{assignment} \indexii{slice}{assignment} \stindex{del} \renewcommand{\indexsubitem}{(list method)} \ttindex{append} \ttindex{count} \ttindex{index} \ttindex{insert} \ttindex{remove} \ttindex{reverse} \ttindex{sort} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] Raises an exception when \var{x} is not found in \var{s}. \item[(2)] The \code{sort()} method takes an optional argument specifying a comparison function of two arguments (list items) which should return \code{-1}, \code{0} or \code{1} depending on whether the first argument is considered smaller than, equal to, or larger than the second argument. Note that this slows the sorting process down considerably; e.g. to sort a list in reverse order it is much faster to use calls to \code{sort()} and \code{reverse()} than to use \code{sort()} with a comparison function that reverses the ordering of the elements. \end{description} \subsection{Mapping Types} A \dfn{mapping} object maps values of one type (the key type) to arbitrary objects. Mappings are mutable objects. There is currently only one standard mapping type, the \dfn{dictionary}. A dictionary's keys are almost arbitrary values. The only types of values not acceptable as keys are values containing lists or dictionaries or other mutable types that are compared by value rather than by object identity. Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g. 1 and 1.0) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry. \indexii{mapping}{types} \indexii{dictionary}{type} Dictionaries are created by placing a comma-separated list of \code{\var{key}:\,var{value}} pairs within braces, for example: \code{\{'jack':\,4098, 'sjoerd':\,4127\}} or \code{\{4098:\,'jack', 4127:\,'sjoerd'\}}. The following operations are defined on mappings (where \var{a} is a mapping, \var{k} is a key and \var{x} is an arbitrary object): \begin{tableiii}{|c|l|c|}{code}{Operation}{Result}{Notes} \lineiii{len(\var{a})}{the number of items in \var{a}}{} \lineiii{\var{a}[\var{k}]}{the item of \var{a} with key \var{k}}{(1)} \lineiii{\var{a}[\var{k}] = \var{x}}{set \code{\var{a}[\var{k}]} to \var{x}}{} \lineiii{del \var{a}[\var{k}]}{remove \code{\var{a}[\var{k}]} from \var{a}}{(1)} \lineiii{\var{a}.items()}{a copy of \var{a}'s list of (key, item) pairs}{(2)} \lineiii{\var{a}.keys()}{a copy of \var{a}'s list of keys}{(2)} \lineiii{\var{a}.values()}{a copy of \var{a}'s list of values}{(2)} \lineiii{\var{a}.has_key(\var{k})}{\code{1} if \var{a} has a key \var{k}, else \code{0}}{} \end{tableiii} \indexiii{operations on}{mapping}{types} \indexiii{operations on}{dictionary}{type} \stindex{del} \bifuncindex{len} \renewcommand{\indexsubitem}{(dictionary method)} \ttindex{keys} \ttindex{has_key} \noindent Notes: \begin{description} \item[(1)] Raises an exception if \var{k} is not in the map. \item[(2)] Keys and values are listed in random order. \end{description} \subsection{Other Built-in Types} The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects. Most of these support only one or two operations. \subsubsection{Modules} The only special operation on a module is attribute access: \code{\var{m}.\var{name}}, where \var{m} is a module and \var{name} accesses a name defined in \var{m}'s symbol table. Module attributes can be assigned to. (Note that the \code{import} statement is not, strictly spoken, an operation on a module object; \code{import \var{foo}} does not require a module object named \var{foo} to exist, rather it requires an (external) \emph{definition} for a module named \var{foo} somewhere.) A special member of every module is \code{__dict__}. This is the dictionary containing the module's symbol table. Modifying this dictionary will actually change the module's symbol table, but direct assignment to the \code{__dict__} attribute is not possible (i.e., you can write \code{\var{m}.__dict__['a'] = 1}, which defines \code{\var{m}.a} to be \code{1}, but you can't write \code{\var{m}.__dict__ = \{\}}. Modules are written like this: \code{}. \subsubsection{Classes and Class Instances} \nodename{Classes and Instances} (See Chapters 3 and 7 of the Python Reference Manual for these.) \subsubsection{Functions} Function objects are created by function definitions. The only operation on a function object is to call it: \code{\var{func}(\var{argument-list})}. There are really two flavors of function objects: built-in functions and user-defined functions. Both support the same operation (to call the function), but the implementation is different, hence the different object types. The implementation adds two special read-only attributes: \code{\var{f}.func_code} is a function's \dfn{code object} (see below) and \code{\var{f}.func_globals} is the dictionary used as the function's global name space (this is the same as \code{\var{m}.__dict__} where \var{m} is the module in which the function \var{f} was defined). \subsubsection{Methods} \obindex{method} Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation. There are two flavors: built-in methods (such as \code{append()} on lists) and class instance methods. Built-in methods are described with the types that support them. The implementation adds two special read-only attributes to class instance methods: \code{\var{m}.im_self} is the object whose method this is, and \code{\var{m}.im_func} is the function implementing the method. Calling \code{\var{m}(\var{arg-1}, \var{arg-2}, {\rm \ldots}, \var{arg-n})} is completely equivalent to calling \code{\var{m}.im_func(\var{m}.im_self, \var{arg-1}, \var{arg-2}, {\rm \ldots}, \var{arg-n})}. (See the Python Reference Manual for more info.) \subsubsection{Code Objects} \obindex{code} Code objects are used by the implementation to represent ``pseudo-compiled'' executable Python code such as a function body. They differ from function objects because they don't contain a reference to their global execution environment. Code objects are returned by the built-in \code{compile()} function and can be extracted from function objects through their \code{func_code} attribute. \bifuncindex{compile} \ttindex{func_code} A code object can be executed or evaluated by passing it (instead of a source string) to the \code{exec} statement or the built-in \code{eval()} function. \stindex{exec} \bifuncindex{eval} (See the Python Reference Manual for more info.) \subsubsection{Type Objects} Type objects represent the various object types. An object's type is accessed by the built-in function \code{type()}. There are no special operations on types. The standard module \code{types} defines names for all standard built-in types. \bifuncindex{type} \stmodindex{types} Types are written like this: \code{}. \subsubsection{The Null Object} This object is returned by functions that don't explicitly return a value. It supports no special operations. There is exactly one null object, named \code{None} (a built-in name). It is written as \code{None}. \subsubsection{File Objects} File objects are implemented using \C{}'s \code{stdio} package and can be created with the built-in function \code{open()} described under Built-in Functions below. They are also returned by some other built-in functions and methods, e.g.\ \code{posix.popen()} and \code{posix.fdopen()} and the \code{makefile()} method of socket objects. \bifuncindex{open} \bifuncindex{popen} \bifuncindex{fdopen} \bifuncindex{makefile} When a file operation fails for an I/O-related reason, the exception \code{IOError} is raised. This includes situations where the operation is not defined for some reason, like \code{seek()} on a tty device or writing a file opened for reading. Files have the following methods: \renewcommand{\indexsubitem}{(file method)} \begin{funcdesc}{close}{} Close the file. A closed file cannot be read or written anymore. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{flush}{} Flush the internal buffer, like \code{stdio}'s \code{fflush()}. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{isatty}{} Return \code{1} if the file is connected to a tty(-like) device, else \code{0}. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{read}{\optional{size}} Read at most \var{size} bytes from the file (less if the read hits \EOF{} or no more data is immediately available on a pipe, tty or similar device). If the \var{size} argument is negative or omitted, read all data until \EOF{} is reached. The bytes are returned as a string object. An empty string is returned when \EOF{} is encountered immediately. (For certain files, like ttys, it makes sense to continue reading after an \EOF{} is hit.) \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{readline}optional{size}} Read one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the string% \footnote{The advantage of leaving the newline on is that an empty string can be returned to mean \EOF{} without being ambiguous. Another advantage is that (in cases where it might matter, e.g. if you want to make an exact copy of a file while scanning its lines) you can tell whether the last line of a file ended in a newline or not (yes this happens!).} (but may be absent when a file ends with an incomplete line). If thevar{size} argument is present and non-negative, it is a maximum byte count (including the trailing newline) and an incomplete line may be returned. An empty string is returned when \EOF{} is hit immediately. Note: unlike \code{stdio}'s \code{fgets()}, the returned string contains null characters (\code{'\e 0'}) if they occurred in the input. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{readlines}{} Read until \EOF{} using \code{readline()} and return a list containing the lines thus read. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{seek}{offset\, whence} Set the file's current position, like \code{stdio}'s \code{fseek()}. The \var{whence} argument is optional and defaults to \code{0} (absolute file positioning); other values are \code{1} (seek relative to the current position) and \code{2} (seek relative to the file's end). There is no return value. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{tell}{} Return the file's current position, like \code{stdio}'s \code{ftell()}. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{write}{str} Write a string to the file. There is no return value. \end{funcdesc} \begin{funcdesc}{writelines}{list} Write a list of strings to the file. There is no return value. (The name is intended to match \code{readlines}; \code{writelines} does not add line separators.) \end{funcdesc} \subsubsection{Internal Objects} (See the Python Reference Manual for these.) \subsection{Special Attributes} The implementation adds a few special read-only attributes to several object types, where they are relevant: \begin{itemize} \item \code{\var{x}.__dict__} is a dictionary of some sort used to store an object's (writable) attributes; \item \code{\var{x}.__methods__} lists the methods of many built-in object types, e.g., \code{[].__methods__} yields \code{['append', 'count', 'index', 'insert', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']}; \item \code{\var{x}.__members__} lists data attributes; \item \code{\var{x}.__class__} is the class to which a class instance belongs; \item \code{\var{x}.__bases__} is the tuple of base classes of a class object. \end{itemize}